This contribution sets music related research on expertise and an action ori­ented theory of learning as a platform to approach current views on musical learning. The acquisition of musical competence is under the constructivist paradigm more feasible, and has higher plasticity, than under the old idea of musical achievement to be an outcome of giftedness.The slogan „use it or loose it" is nevertheless not to everybody equally workable, since the impact of socio-economic status variables perseveres and reduces the equal-oppor­tunities-ideal. Theories, philosophies and methods of musical learning are then displayed in an overview type of presentation.An attempt to structure the research field is undertaken by differentiating contents from learners and from methods. In a following delineation, musical learning is presented as a topic which concerns people of all ages and talents and types; it occurs and can be promoted life-long. For a closing, a musical self-concept is drafted, viewed as the entity which steers musical behavior and experience, and statements on three topics stand for an outlook on further functions and po­tentials of musical learning.

Stumpf's later remark at his concept of tonal fusion not to give a proper definition of consonance (1926) has often been misunderstood. No way, he refused his theory of tonal fusion, but in the end he was of the opinion, that fusion does not describe the essence of consonance. Thus, according to Aris­toteles's „Topik" he classified fusion as a „proprium" of consonance, but not as a „definition" of consonance. To characterise the essence of consonance, Theodor Lipps suggested a model of psychological rhythm-pattems reflecting sound-induced physio­logical processes in hearing. Indeed, periodic sequences of pulses code pitch. A neuronal network located in the nucleus cochlearis and in the colliculus inferior analyses the periodic structure of those pulse-sequences. Mathemat­ically, this periodicity-detection is equivalent to the autocorrelation function of the pulse-sequences. Two concurrent pulse-trains with different periods represent the two tones of an interval. As autocorrelation cancels phase shifts, the periodicity-detec­tion leads to coincidence of all common periods. The coincidence rate de­ pends on the vibration ratio of the interval. In the model, the mathematical logic of coinciding pulse-sequences is examined. Neuronal pulses are represented by density functions showing a slide width which is determined by the random spread of neuronal discharges, the width of time-windows for coincidences, and the fuzziness of periodic­ity detection. Forming the autocorrelation function of the sum of two pulse­ trains representing an interval makes it possible to calculate the degree of tonal fusion for any vibration ratio. By means of the autocorrelation func­tion I define the „Generalized Coincidence Function". Its variable is the vibration ratio. So it maps any interval onto its coincidence rate. Its graph corresponds to Stumpf's „Verschmelzungsstufen in einer Curve" (1890). Thus, the mathematical model suggests that the functioning of a neuronal network performing periodicity-detection by autocorrelation causes tonal fusion. The coincidence-rates of concurrent pulse-trains during periodicity-de­tection in hearing are the essence of consonance. Tonal fusion as a conse­quence of coincidence is a „proprium" of consonance. Roughness only occurs under certain conditions and thus it has to be regarded as an „acci­dence" in the sense of Aristoteles's Topic.

lt is suggested to provide Licklider's autocorrelation theory of pitch percep­tion (1951, 1959), that Hesse also used as time series analysis of correlation for an explanation of consonance, with a window for the uncertainty of simultaneousness, thus making it a practicable method.Current consonance theories are based on the presentation of steady sounds and cannot explain the tolerance of detuning. The consonance theories operating in the fre­quency domain are even less able to consider the terms of music practice than the time domain based theories.Regarding Langner's proof of the dual representation of pitch, the tonotopic and periodotopic mapping in the cen­ter of the colliculus inferior (ICC) as well as in the cortex (Langner et al., 1988, 1 997), and the interspike-histograms of Tramo et al. (200 1 ), which demonstrate that, using neural autocorrelation, harmonic intervals are detected because of their periodicity, a supposition to favour theories in the time domain is established.For the first time the existence of this kind of neural processes could be proved, that are necessary to explain consonance by means of a periodicity analysis of the neural pulse pattern. The rigidity of the autocorrelation analysis, that results in identifying de­ tuned consonant intervals as not consonant, even if they (still) sound conso­nant, is eliminated by the introduction of an uncertainty connected with the detection of simultaneousness.This can be explained by the finite width of the nerve impulses and the finite reaction/latencies concerning the almost simultaneous arrival of two nerve impulses at one neuron (Fricke, 2005a, S.135). Considering that uncertainty through a 0.8 ms window, like Ebeling currently did for calculating the autocorrelation of intervals, a graduation of the consonant intervals according to the ranking order of Stumpf's (1890, S.176) investigations of tonal fusion is obtained.The curve particularly shows that each interval has the necessary interval width, that is given by the tolerance of detuning. lt therewith succeeded for the first time to explain the consonant simultaneous-sounding of even detuned intervals within a theory of consonance.

Research on human memory emphasizes its capacity for abstraction, allow­ ing to separate important from unimportant information and to forget those details not necessary to remember. Among different parameters of musical melodies, interval structure and rhythm are regarded as more important for melody recognition than absolute tempo and the key of melodies (i. e., their absolute pitches). Recent experiments using production and recognition par­adigms have shown that melodies learned in one key only can be recalled in the original key even by nonmusicians. The goal of the series of experiments presented here was to identify different factors influencing memory for mu­sical keys among absolute pitch nonpossessors. Altogether, 268 participants sang different kinds of familiar melodies from memory.The keys of the pro­duced melodies were compared to the original keys. Analyses revealed in­fluences of the type of melodies (plausibility, pitch range), of melody-learn­ers (musical background, pitch labelling ability), and of melody-learning (frequency of hearing) on the accuracy of memory for musical keys. Mem­ory for musical keys can be described as a complex phenomenon influenced by factors known to influence numerous other forms of human memory.

Qualitative studies show that music is specifically used in everyday life to modulate activation and arousal. Empirical studies on the usage of music in everyday life are quite rare for lack of psychometric inventories. The IAAM (Inventory for the assessment of activation- and arousal-modulation through Music) solves this problem and allows for standardized research of various questions. Theoretically the basic dimensions of using music in everyday are integrated in a model that presents a linkage between several theories and research paradigm. Furthermore it allows to derive a possible connection between personality, the use of music and health processes. This study deals with the question of reliability and validity of the IAAM and its connection with health. Data analyses confirm the factor structure and reliability of the IAAM-scales. In addition three of the five scales fit the Rasch model. Further results show that the different strategies for using music are associated with musical preferences and personality variables. Analyzing the possible con­nection with health confirms the formulated hypothesis that using music in everyday live acts as personality dependent modulation strategy upon health.

Existing studies offer a weak and incomplete picture of the everyday-phe­nomenon known as „tunes in the head". An explorative study is presented which is meant to offer a more precise description of the „phenomenology of tunes in the head". 59 guided interviews with subjects who had listened to a CD with 20 catchy tunes during a period of 1-6 weeks serve as a start­ing point. Although the opposite case also exists, „tunes in the head" predominantly arise among personally preferred musical titles. They may com­mence while the music is still playing or else several weeks after listening. Also, they may last from a few minutes to several weeks. Moments of men­tal relaxation, sometimes paired with increased physical activity seem to be in favour of involuntary occurrences of „tunes in the head". They are mostly considered to be pleasant; listening to or imagining other music as well as turning to concentrated work can serve as counter strategies if needed. Lyrics play an important part for memorization; effects of other characteristics of musical structure could not be disclosed with the present experimental de­ sign. On the whole, the phenomenon of „tunes in the head" can be regarded as a compound effect of objective (musical) characteristics and subjective dispositions.

lt is part of the universal insights of music-psychological as well as music­ historical scientists that every musical activity is based on acquired knowl­edge that permanently changes. But nevertheless the central contents of it are stored in memory. Studies on composers' ,,workshops" in particular have provided an insight into how musicians involved in creative work develop strategies to aid production. An important role is played in this by procedures which reduce the complexity of larger musical structures to manageable elements, enable their retention in written form and thus ini­tiate an interaction between notation and memory. Sketches for example may act as continuous records of mental processes, in order to release the mental memory, or they may act as markers for remembrance, if the short reread writing activates a greater commemorated context. In autographical scores of instrumental concerts the solo may be written down incompletely or occasionally be completely absent, if the composer himself is the acting musician and he has either memorized his part or newly improvises it at each performance. In this case a „haptical memory" seems to be of concern that certainly may take action in reverse direction: Playing music from mem­ory sometimes helps composers to pave the way for new ideas. The memory apparently works different if over specific periods composers seem to un­ consciously circumvent certain compact „musical vocabulary", i. e., melod­ical, rhythmical or harmonical phrases. Source based and analytical research may point to that kind of cases and with this it may provide material for methodological different oriented psychological questions not least for a re­ productively exchange across the sections of the discipline.